salem. A chapel and Crusader armory were erected on the Temple Mount and horses were kept in the area below the mount known as “Solomon’s Stables.” When Salah-ed-Din-Yusuf (Saladin) rose to power in 1171 C.E., he set his sights on Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187, he conquered Jerusalem leaving significant, historic buildings and Christian churches in tact. With Saladin in power, the Dome of the Rock returned to Muslim hands and was beautified with colorful tiles and inscriptions in the Kufic script. Al-Aqsa was also restored as a Muslim mosque. Saladin’s entrance signaled the end of the times of the Crusaders.

MAMELUKE AND TURKISH RULE
The next major leader from this period was Baibars, a Turkish slave who became sultan from 1260-1277. Throughout Jerusalem, the Mamelukes built Muslim schools, mosques, restored Al-Aqsa’s dome, and erased much of the evidence of the Crusader’s presence on the Temple Mount. They indeed went to great pains to Islamize the city, especially Har HaBayit. Mazar provides details of structures immediately surrounding the Temple Mount, “On the periphery of the Haram es-Sherif enclosure (the historical Temple Mount), the Mameluke sultans competed with one another to erect, between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, a dozen polychromic buildings of great beauty on the northern and western sides of the Temple Mount esplanade. These buildings housed madrasas, which were placed behind the charming polychromic cloisters or riwaq giving access to the main building. Added to the ring of madrasas were numerous adjoining mausoleums put up by sultans and noblemen” (Mazar, p. 281).

Suleiman I undertook serious renovations of the Temple Mount complex and Jerusalem’s walls. He replaced the tiles on the surface of the Dome of the Rock using Armenian craftsman who had a “secret” dye which gives off a blue color while adding in white, green, and yellow. Suleiman rebuilt the city walls (1539-1542) which still stand to this day.

FROM BRITISH RULE TO PRESENT
From 1700 C.E. to 1917, Jerusalem remained under Turkish rule, albeit its rule was not without challenge. Then, on December 9, 1917, General E. Allenby took control of Israel and freed the Temple Mount from a thirteen hundred year Muslim rule. Many changes were happening to Israel and the Jewish people during this time—far too many to recount here. However, the period of the British Mandate was good for the Temple Mount and archeologists working to understand the long history of the area. Full access was granted by the Waqf to inspectors of Har HaBayit and at this time it was possible to document, survey, photograph, and analyze data for the purpose of preserving what was left of such an important structure. This “open relationship” between the Waqf and archeologists would not be long lasting. As soon as the Arab Legion attacked the newly formed state of Israel in May of 1948, the Temple Mount fell under Jordanian rule. Nothing significant changed as far as the structure of the Temple Mount itself is concerned, but something was changing in the hearts of the people who belonged to this holy site. Strength was brewing that would soon bring about a war which would reverse the wrongs of the previous two millennia.

On Wednesday, June 7, 1967, following a bloody and heroic battle, Jerusalem and Har HaBayit were once again under Israeli control. Then the Israelis did the unthinkable. When the Six-Day War ended, Israel returned the Dome of the Rock (and

INTRODUCTION
The mention of har habayit (the Temple Mount) should sober the mind and cause the heart of the hearer to begin to race for it is in the holiest land, the holiest of cities, and is the most holy location in the universe. This paper is a historical survey of the Temple Mount between the Second Temple period up to the current Islamic occupation. The facets of this survey will vary from archeology to Temple rituals, rabbinic commentary to scholarly opinions on the Jewish, Christian, and Muslim presence there.

HEROD’S TEMPLE

Herod’s building projects, which began in 19 B.C.E., and carried out by over a thousand priests, fit into four categories: the inner Temple which consisted of the Holy of Holies (Heb. devir), the Holy (hekhal), and the hall (ulam—the palatial entrance); the outer Temple which consisted of courtyards, chambers, the miqdash, which included the priestly and Israelite courts, and the women’s court, ramparts and staircases; the Herodian compound (Temple Mount); and the city of Jerusalem, which was extended to the south, west, and north of the Temple Mount. Herod’s temple became the largest man-made platform built in the ancient world comprising of 145 acres. Klein describes the scenery, “…the new Temple was a striking and dazzling structure, all white marble set off by gleaming gold. Its fa?ade rose some 150 feet high and it was equally wide. Along a glistening front were spaced four great columns about 60 feet high, with capitals in Greco-Roman style. In the center stood its lofty and imposing gate” (Klein, p. 97).

In spite of the splendor of Herod’s temple, he did not receive the accolades of many of the people. While he allowed the Pharisees to dictate much of the construction (so that the new Temple would comply with Torah regulations), Herod disregarded their requirements when they offended Herod’s tastes. Herod also interfered with the Temple rituals by “hiring and firing” high priests. He upset the Sadducees and taxed the people so highly that most were opposed to his rule. Like his rule, Herod’s temple did not last forever, as he must have hoped. Messiah Yeshua’s prophecy in Luke 19:43-44, is seen fulfilled to this day when He said to Jerusalem, “For the days will come upon you when your enemies will throw up a barricade against you, and surround you and hem you in on every side, and they will level you to the ground and your children within you, and they will not leave in you one stone upon another, because you did not recognize the time of your visitation.”

The Roman general Vespasian and his son, Titus, amassed legions and laid siege to Jerusalem by the Pesach of 70 C.E. Sadly, as the Romans breached the walls of the city, several Jewish factions were tearing themselves apart. It was Titus’ siege ramparts that enabled him to take the Temple Mount. Schiffman reports, “According to Josephus, Titus planned to spare the Temple from destruction, but it was nonetheless engulfed in a conflagration and could not be saved” (Schiffman, p. 161).

After the destruction of the Temple, the task at hand for the Rabbis became to maintain Jewish laws and practices. Many of the Temple rituals soon took residence in the Jewish home or synagogue. However, there were some rituals that obviously could no longer be carried out without the Temple. It would not be until Rabbi Judah the Prince finished editing the Mishnah at the beginning of the third century that many of these problems were resolved. What follows is a summary of the transition from Temple Judaism to a Judaism grounded in the home and synagogue.

Many of the festivals were easily transitioned. For example, Pesach was transformed into a Seder meal and Sukkoth was able to be observed outside the Jewish home (including the lulav and etrog ceremonies). Other high holy days such as Yom Kippur had to acquire acceptance as a ceremony in the synagogue and required constant reassuring from the Sages. The priestly tithes was the most difficult to resolve, however.

In addition to creating systems for the ongoing implementation of the moadim and tithes, the sacrifices made a transition also from their ritual status to that of liturgical prayer. The apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea scrolls attest to the increase in fixed patterns of prayer namely, in the morning and afternoon (the time of the tamid offering), and eventually evening prayers were added. It was during this time these prayers were collected into works called Siddurim and Mahzorim. While these efforts to stabilize Judaism were important no doubt, no Jew was prepared to defend the coming changes to their Land and specifically Har HaBayit with the arrival of Emperor Hadrian.

AELIA CAPITOLINA

While the Jews were busy trying to transition to the new form of their religion, Hadrian became Emperor in 117 C.E. Hadrian’s goal was to “paganize” Jerusalem and rename it “Aelia Capitolina” after himself (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) and the Capitoline Triad—the trinity of Roman gods. When the revolt of Bar Kochba, the false messiah, failed, Hadrian’s Aelia Captiolina could flourish for a time. Hadrian erected a temple to another Roman god on Har Habayit and installed theaters, a circus, game halls, baths, and two market places complete with statues of Greek, Roman, and Phoenician gods scattered around the city.

Jews and Christians alike were not permitted to enter the city upon punishment of death. Only Roman soldiers occupied Hadrian’s pagan citadel. Anyone found keeping the Sabbath, reading or teaching Torah, practicing circumcision, or following any Jewish law was severely punished. While Christians and Jews were equally punished, neither group was made to worship idols or false gods.

Jerusalem (Aelia) became largely unimportant and Judea’s name was changed to Syria Palestine with Caesarea as its capital. Klein comments, “So forgotten was the name of Jerusalem…that when a century later a governor of Palestine was informed that a group of Coptic Christians had come from Jerusalem, the governor had to inquire where the town was located” (Klein, 120).

HAR HABAYIT UNDER BYZANTINE CHRISTIANITY

Two factors caused the decline of Hellenistic Judaism by the mid-second century C.E.: human and material losses caused by the Jewish uprising and the rise of Christianity. The practices of Judaism became legal once again and by 212 C.E. Jews were considered Roman citizens but still exiled from the city of Jerusalem; their Temple Mount standing in ruins. In 324 C.E., Constantine ruled the Roman Empire causing the Jews to be ruled by a Christian emperor who in turn, led to the Christianization of both Jews and the Temple Mount. Constantine was not acting alone, however. His mother Helena embarked on a vast pilgrimage to the Holy Land and while there, arbitrarily designated certain sites “holy” and worthy of being rebuilt and “glorified.” Constantine and subsequent rulers of Byzantine Christianity did make changes to the Temple Mount but the extent of these alterations is not clear. Recent archeology has uncovered two buildings, built in Roman times and restored by the Byzantines, at the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount. In addition to the restored Roman buildings, a Byzantine monastery, a convent, and living quarters were discovered below the area of the Temple Mount known as the “Pinnacle of the Temple.” Mazar says of the area around the Temple Mount, “They [excavations] prove that the area was thickly populated from the late Byzantine period to the Moslem era. Some of their plastered walls, well-built doorways and windows, their arches and pillars supporting the roofs, the stone paving blocks of the courts and mosaic pavements of the rooms, were well preserved….The buildings were mostly destroyed during the sudden Persian attack in A.D. 614 at which time a section of the southern wall of the Temple Mount enclosure was breached…” (Mazar, p. 24).

An interesting attempt was made, during the rule of Emperor Julian the Apostate, to rebuild the Temple. By this time, the Christians had removed the stones left in the courtyards of the Temple complex in order to build their own churches but there were still heaping piles of ruins which had been left there nearly three hundred years. These were cleared and construction began in 363 C.E. with mixed interest from the Jews. Julian blamed the fires on the Christians, who were unduly resentful of the efforts to rebuild the Temple. Nevertheless, this ancient example of a thwarted rebuilding attempt (all work ceased with Justin’s death in 363) outside of HaShem’s will, will be repeated on a smaller scale nearly 1,300 years later when the Jews once again gain access to the Temple Mount.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT FALLS TO ISLAM

It was a Monday afternoon, some time in the winter of 638 C.E. Caliph Omar ibn al-Kitab, who by then held most of the Middle East under his sway, entered the gates of Jerusalem riding on a haggard beast of burden, his body draped in a simple robe of camel hair…Immediately upon his arrival…the caliph inquired about the location of ‘the Temple of the Jews that Solomon built.’…Omar walked to the Haram, the Arab name for the Temple Mount…The Islamic conquerors commenced a large-scale clearing operation on the Temple Mount, and at the end of a convoluted process they canonized the place as the location from which Mohammed ascended heavenward during his renowned night journey. With the sweep of a hand, the Temple Mount platform, with its new mosques and other sites, again became a focus of religious belief and practice, subordinate in Islam only to Mecca and Medina (Eliav, p. 237-238).

Caliph Omar, Mohammed’s second successor, was said to be gracious to the Christians but harsher to the Jews. Christians, although they were taxed, were allowed to keep their churches and could freely worship. Jews on the other hand were forbidden to enter Jerusalem and many laws were made against them. As for Jerusalem, her capture brought changes but not immediately. She remained largely intact according to the Byzantine-Christian design.

The Temple Mount was immediately considered sacred due to the traditions in Islam (Islam means "submission" contrary to popular belief that is means "peace.") of Mohammed ascending to heaven on his horse from the Temple Mount platform. On account of this, Muslims differed significantly from the anti-Semitic Christian view regarding the restoration of the Temple Mount. The Byzantine Christians felt that Har HaBayit should remain in ruin as “…visible proof of the destruction of Jewish nationalism and the elimination of its ancient ties with the holy place.” While Muslim conquerors wanted to refurbish the area in order to initiate Islamic worship in that location.

Omar constructed a mosque on the site of the current Al-Aqsa mosque but this was later reconstructed by Caliph Abdel Malek and his son El-Walid during the periods of 685-715 C.E. into the Al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock. Mazar outlines three reasons why these structures were erected: “(1) It memorialized the scene of one of the most controversial visions of the prophet Mohammed as recorded in verse 1 of Sura 17 of the Koran, whereby the messenger of [the god of Islam] was transported from Mecca to the ‘distant shrine’ (the most remote) mounted on a magic animal called el-Buraq, accompanied by the Angel Gabriel…(2) The Dome of the Rock competed in beauty and attraction with the magnificent Christian basilicas which filled the city, inspired awe and admiration not only of Christians, but of Moslems as well…(3) As a result of Arab building activities, Jerusalem became more than ever a magnet for pilgrims” (Mazar, pp. 262-263).

Between the years 637 to 1009 C.E., Jews were allowed to enter the Temple Mount and pray at what had been the Temple gates in exchange for cleaning up the trash present on the site. 150 years before the Crusades took place, they were permitted ascend the mount and pray. All of this changed in 1010 when caliph Hakim of the Egyptian Fatmids ruled with a harsh hand. He decreed the removal of all religious buildings (other than Islam), slaughtered Christians and Jews who would not convert to Islam, by 1010 he commanded Jews to wear six-pound wooden blocks and bells on their clothing (in order to be spotted easily) and by 1014 all Jews and Christians had to leave all the providences over which he ruled.

From 1016-1034 C.E., earthquakes continued to rattle the Temple Mount and damage important buildings like the Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. In 1070, the Seljuks rose to power and this, in conjunction with the inhumane treatment of Jews and Christians in Israel, prompted Pope Gregory VII to instigate the “holy” Crusades; promising that all who fought would obtain the full assurance of the forgiveness of their sins.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT UNDER CRUSADER DOMINATION
On the surface, the cause of the Crusades was freeing the Holy Land from her oppressors. However, other insidious rationales lurked below the surface such as economic and political motives making them hypocritical to their core. The Crusaders did not only slaughter the Muslims; Jews were herded into synagogues and burned alive. Babies were thrown from walls or thrown onto stones all the while the “Christian crusaders” called out, “our men went to worship at the Sepulcher of our Saviour Jesus and thus fulfill our pledge to Him…” The crimes committed in Jerusalem during this period were not only against people. HaShem’s holy hill was once again desecrated as a group of soldier-monks called, “Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon” (or Knights Templar for short) took control of the Temple Mount. The Dome of the Rock was converted into a Catholic church and Al-Aqsa mosque was made into a palace for the Frankish ruler, Godfrey and later for Baldwin I, the first Latin king of Jerusalem. A chapel and Crusader armory were erected on the Temple Mount and horses were kept in the area below the mount known as “Solomon’s Stables.” When Salah-ed-Din-Yusuf (Saladin) rose to power in 1171 C.E., he set his sights on Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187, he conquered Jerusalem leaving significant, historic buildings and Christian churches in tact. With Saladin in power, the Dome of the Rock returned to Muslim hands and was beautified with colorful tiles and inscriptions in the Kufic script. Al-Aqsa was also restored as a Muslim mosque. Saladin’s entrance signaled the end of the times of the Crusaders.

MAMELUKE AND TURKISH RULE
The next major leader from this period was Baibars, a Turkish slave who became sultan from 1260-1277. Throughout Jerusalem, the Mamelukes built Muslim schools, mosques, restored Al-Aqsa’s dome, and erased much of the evidence of the Crusader’s presence on the Temple Mount. They indeed went to great pains to Islamize the city, especially Har HaBayit. Mazar provides details of structures immediately surrounding the Temple Mount, “On the periphery of the Haram es-Sherif enclosure (the historical Temple Mount), the Mameluke sultans competed with one another to erect, between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, a dozen polychromic buildings of great beauty on the northern and western sides of the Temple Mount esplanade. These buildings housed madrasas, which were placed behind the charming polychromic cloisters or riwaq giving access to the main building. Added to the ring of madrasas were numerous adjoining mausoleums put up by sultans and noblemen” (Mazar, p. 281).

Suleiman I undertook serious renovations of the Temple Mount complex and Jerusalem’s walls. He replaced the tiles on the surface of the Dome of the Rock using Armenian craftsman who had a “secret” dye which gives off a blue color while adding in white, green, and yellow. Suleiman rebuilt the city walls (1539-1542) which still stand to this day.

FROM BRITISH RULE TO PRESENT
From 1700 C.E. to 1917, Jerusalem remained under Turkish rule, albeit its rule was not without challenge. Then, on December 9, 1917, General E. Allenby took control of Israel and freed the Temple Mount from a thirteen hundred year Muslim rule. Many changes were happening to Israel and the Jewish people during this time—far too many to recount here. However, the period of the British Mandate was good for the Temple Mount and archeologists working to understand the long history of the area. Full access was granted by the Waqf to inspectors of Har HaBayit and at this time it was possible to document, survey, photograph, and analyze data for the purpose of preserving what was left of such an important structure. This “open relationship” between the Waqf and archeologists would not be long lasting. As soon as the Arab Legion attacked the newly formed state of Israel in May of 1948, the Temple Mount fell under Jordanian rule. Nothing significant changed as far as the structure of the Temple Mount itself is concerned, but something was changing in the hearts of the people who belonged to this holy site. Strength was brewing that would soon bring about a war which would reverse the wrongs of the previous two millennia.

On Wednesday, June 7, 1967, following a bloody and heroic battle, Jerusalem and Har HaBayit were once again under Israeli control. Then the Israelis did the unthinkable. When the Six-Day War ended, Israel returned the Dome of the Rock (and

d. What follows is a summary of the transition from Temple Judaism to a Judaism grounded in the home and synagogue.

Many of the festivals were easily transitioned. For example, Pesach was transformed into a Seder meal and Sukkoth was able to be observed outside the Jewish home (including the lulav and etrog ceremonies). Other high holy days such as Yom Kippur had to acquire acceptance as a ceremony in the synagogue and required constant reassuring from the Sages. The priestly tithes was the most difficult to resolve, however.

In addition to creating systems for the ongoing implementation of the moadim and tithes, the sacrifices made a transition also from their ritual status to that of liturgical prayer. The apocrypha, pseudepigrapha, and the Dead Sea scrolls attest to the increase in fixed patterns of prayer namely, in the morning and afternoon (the time of the tamid offering), and eventually evening prayers were added. It was during this time these prayers were collected into works called Siddurim and Mahzorim. While these efforts to stabilize Judaism were important no doubt, no Jew was prepared to defend the coming changes to their Land and specifically Har HaBayit with the arrival of Emperor Hadrian.

AELIA CAPITOLINA

While the Jews were busy trying to transition to the new form of their religion, Hadrian became Emperor in 117 C.E. Hadrian’s goal was to “paganize” Jerusalem and rename it “Aelia Capitolina” after himself (Publius Aelius Hadrianus) and the Capitoline Triad—the trinity of Roman gods. When the revolt of Bar Kochba, the false messiah, failed, Hadrian’s Aelia Captiolina could flourish for a time. Hadrian erected a temple to another Roman god on Har Habayit and installed theaters, a circus, game halls, baths, and two market places complete with statues of Greek, Roman, and Phoenician gods scattered around the city.

Jews and Christians alike were not permitted to enter the city upon punishment of death. Only Roman soldiers occupied Hadrian’s pagan citadel. Anyone found keeping the Sabbath, reading or teaching Torah, practicing circumcision, or following any Jewish law was severely punished. While Christians and Jews were equally punished, neither group was made to worship idols or false gods.

Jerusalem (Aelia) became largely unimportant and Judea’s name was changed to Syria Palestine with Caesarea as its capital. Klein comments, “So forgotten was the name of Jerusalem…that when a century later a governor of Palestine was informed that a group of Coptic Christians had come from Jerusalem, the governor had to inquire where the town was located” (Klein, 120).

HAR HABAYIT UNDER BYZANTINE CHRISTIANITY

Two factors caused the decline of Hellenistic Judaism by the mid-second century C.E.: human and material losses caused by the Jewish uprising and the rise of Christianity. The practices of Judaism became legal once again and by 212 C.E. Jews were considered Roman citizens but still exiled from the city of Jerusalem; their Temple Mount standing in ruins. In 324 C.E., Constantine ruled the Roman Empire causing the Jews to be ruled by a Christian emperor who in turn, led to the Christianization of both Jews and the Temple Mount. Constantine was not acting alone, however. His mother Helena embarked on a vast pilgrimage to the Holy Land and while there, arbitrarily designated certain sites “holy” and worthy of being rebuilt and “glorified.” Constantine and subsequent rulers of Byzantine Christianity did make changes to the Temple Mount but the extent of these alterations is not clear. Recent archeology has uncovered two buildings, built in Roman times and restored by the Byzantines, at the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount. In addition to the restored Roman buildings, a Byzantine monastery, a convent, and living quarters were discovered below the area of the Temple Mount known as the “Pinnacle of the Temple.” Mazar says of the area around the Temple Mount, “They [excavations] prove that the area was thickly populated from the late Byzantine period to the Moslem era. Some of their plastered walls, well-built doorways and windows, their arches and pillars supporting the roofs, the stone paving blocks of the courts and mosaic pavements of the rooms, were well preserved….The buildings were mostly destroyed during the sudden Persian attack in A.D. 614 at which time a section of the southern wall of the Temple Mount enclosure was breached…” (Mazar, p. 24).

An interesting attempt was made, during the rule of Emperor Julian the Apostate, to rebuild the Temple. By this time, the Christians had removed the stones left in the courtyards of the Temple complex in order to build their own churches but there were still heaping piles of ruins which had been left there nearly three hundred years. These were cleared and construction began in 363 C.E. with mixed interest from the Jews. Julian blamed the fires on the Christians, who were unduly resentful of the efforts to rebuild the Temple. Nevertheless, this ancient example of a thwarted rebuilding attempt (all work ceased with Justin’s death in 363) outside of HaShem’s will, will be repeated on a smaller scale nearly 1,300 years later when the Jews once again gain access to the Temple Mount.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT FALLS TO ISLAM

It was a Monday afternoon, some time in the winter of 638 C.E. Caliph Omar ibn al-Kitab, who by then held most of the Middle East under his sway, entered the gates of Jerusalem riding on a haggard beast of burden, his body draped in a simple robe of camel hair…Immediately upon his arrival…the caliph inquired about the location of ‘the Temple of the Jews that Solomon built.’…Omar walked to the Haram, the Arab name for the Temple Mount…The Islamic conquerors commenced a large-scale clearing operation on the Temple Mount, and at the end of a convoluted process they canonized the place as the location from which Mohammed ascended heavenward during his renowned night journey. With the sweep of a hand, the Temple Mount platform, with its new mosques and other sites, again became a focus of religious belief and practice, subordinate in Islam only to Mecca and Medina (Eliav, p. 237-238).

Caliph Omar, Mohammed’s second successor, was said to be gracious to the Christians but harsher to the Jews. Christians, although they were taxed, were allowed to keep their churches and could freely worship. Jews on the other hand were forbidden to enter Jerusalem and many laws were made against them. As for Jerusalem, her capture brought changes but not immediately. She remained largely intact according to the Byzantine-Christian design.

The Temple Mount was immediately considered sacred due to the traditions in Islam (Islam means "submission" contrary to popular belief that is means "peace.") of Mohammed ascending to heaven on his horse from the Temple Mount platform. On account of this, Muslims differed significantly from the anti-Semitic Christian view regarding the restoration of the Temple Mount. The Byzantine Christians felt that Har HaBayit should remain in ruin as “…visible proof of the destruction of Jewish nationalism and the elimination of its ancient ties with the holy place.” While Muslim conquerors wanted to refurbish the area in order to initiate Islamic worship in that location.

Omar constructed a mosque on the site of the current Al-Aqsa mosque but this was later reconstructed by Caliph Abdel Malek and his son El-Walid during the periods of 685-715 C.E. into the Al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock. Mazar outlines three reasons why these structures were erected: “(1) It memorialized the scene of one of the most controversial visions of the prophet Mohammed as recorded in verse 1 of Sura 17 of the Koran, whereby the messenger of [the god of Islam] was transported from Mecca to the ‘distant shrine’ (the most remote) mounted on a magic animal called el-Buraq, accompanied by the Angel Gabriel…(2) The Dome of the Rock competed in beauty and attraction with the magnificent Christian basilicas which filled the city, inspired awe and admiration not only of Christians, but of Moslems as well…(3) As a result of Arab building activities, Jerusalem became more than ever a magnet for pilgrims” (Mazar, pp. 262-263).

Between the years 637 to 1009 C.E., Jews were allowed to enter the Temple Mount and pray at what had been the Temple gates in exchange for cleaning up the trash present on the site. 150 years before the Crusades took place, they were permitted ascend the mount and pray. All of this changed in 1010 when caliph Hakim of the Egyptian Fatmids ruled with a harsh hand. He decreed the removal of all religious buildings (other than Islam), slaughtered Christians and Jews who would not convert to Islam, by 1010 he commanded Jews to wear six-pound wooden blocks and bells on their clothing (in order to be spotted easily) and by 1014 all Jews and Christians had to leave all the providences over which he ruled.

From 1016-1034 C.E., earthquakes continued to rattle the Temple Mount and damage important buildings like the Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. In 1070, the Seljuks rose to power and this, in conjunction with the inhumane treatment of Jews and Christians in Israel, prompted Pope Gregory VII to instigate the “holy” Crusades; promising that all who fought would obtain the full assurance of the forgiveness of their sins.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT UNDER CRUSADER DOMINATION
On the surface, the cause of the Crusades was freeing the Holy Land from her oppressors. However, other insidious rationales lurked below the surface such as economic and political motives making them hypocritical to their core. The Crusaders did not only slaughter the Muslims; Jews were herded into synagogues and burned alive. Babies were thrown from walls or thrown onto stones all the while the “Christian crusaders” called out, “our men went to worship at the Sepulcher of our Saviour Jesus and thus fulfill our pledge to Him…” The crimes committed in Jerusalem during this period were not only against people. HaShem’s holy hill was once again desecrated as a group of soldier-monks called, “Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon” (or Knights Templar for short) took control of the Temple Mount. The Dome of the Rock was converted into a Catholic church and Al-Aqsa mosque was made into a palace for the Frankish ruler, Godfrey and later for Baldwin I, the first Latin king of Jerusalem. A chapel and Crusader armory were erected on the Temple Mount and horses were kept in the area below the mount known as “Solomon’s Stables.” When Salah-ed-Din-Yusuf (Saladin) rose to power in 1171 C.E., he set his sights on Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187, he conquered Jerusalem leaving significant, historic buildings and Christian churches in tact. With Saladin in power, the Dome of the Rock returned to Muslim hands and was beautified with colorful tiles and inscriptions in the Kufic script. Al-Aqsa was also restored as a Muslim mosque. Saladin’s entrance signaled the end of the times of the Crusaders.

MAMELUKE AND TURKISH RULE
The next major leader from this period was Baibars, a Turkish slave who became sultan from 1260-1277. Throughout Jerusalem, the Mamelukes built Muslim schools, mosques, restored Al-Aqsa’s dome, and erased much of the evidence of the Crusader’s presence on the Temple Mount. They indeed went to great pains to Islamize the city, especially Har HaBayit. Mazar provides details of structures immediately surrounding the Temple Mount, “On the periphery of the Haram es-Sherif enclosure (the historical Temple Mount), the Mameluke sultans competed with one another to erect, between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, a dozen polychromic buildings of great beauty on the northern and western sides of the Temple Mount esplanade. These buildings housed madrasas, which were placed behind the charming polychromic cloisters or riwaq giving access to the main building. Added to the ring of madrasas were numerous adjoining mausoleums put up by sultans and noblemen” (Mazar, p. 281).

Suleiman I undertook serious renovations of the Temple Mount complex and Jerusalem’s walls. He replaced the tiles on the surface of the Dome of the Rock using Armenian craftsman who had a “secret” dye which gives off a blue color while adding in white, green, and yellow. Suleiman rebuilt the city walls (1539-1542) which still stand to this day.

FROM BRITISH RULE TO PRESENT
From 1700 C.E. to 1917, Jerusalem remained under Turkish rule, albeit its rule was not without challenge. Then, on December 9, 1917, General E. Allenby took control of Israel and freed the Temple Mount from a thirteen hundred year Muslim rule. Many changes were happening to Israel and the Jewish people during this time—far too many to recount here. However, the period of the British Mandate was good for the Temple Mount and archeologists working to understand the long history of the area. Full access was granted by the Waqf to inspectors of Har HaBayit and at this time it was possible to document, survey, photograph, and analyze data for the purpose of preserving what was left of such an important structure. This “open relationship” between the Waqf and archeologists would not be long lasting. As soon as the Arab Legion attacked the newly formed state of Israel in May of 1948, the Temple Mount fell under Jordanian rule. Nothing significant changed as far as the structure of the Temple Mount itself is concerned, but something was changing in the hearts of the people who belonged to this holy site. Strength was brewing that would soon bring about a war which would reverse the wrongs of the previous two millennia.

On Wednesday, June 7, 1967, following a bloody and heroic battle, Jerusalem and Har HaBayit were once again under Israeli control. Then the Israelis did the unthinkable. When the Six-Day War ended, Israel returned the Dome of the Rock (and

stianity did make changes to the Temple Mount but the extent of these alterations is not clear. Recent archeology has uncovered two buildings, built in Roman times and restored by the Byzantines, at the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount. In addition to the restored Roman buildings, a Byzantine monastery, a convent, and living quarters were discovered below the area of the Temple Mount known as the “Pinnacle of the Temple.” Mazar says of the area around the Temple Mount, “They [excavations] prove that the area was thickly populated from the late Byzantine period to the Moslem era. Some of their plastered walls, well-built doorways and windows, their arches and pillars supporting the roofs, the stone paving blocks of the courts and mosaic pavements of the rooms, were well preserved….The buildings were mostly destroyed during the sudden Persian attack in A.D. 614 at which time a section of the southern wall of the Temple Mount enclosure was breached…” (Mazar, p. 24).

An interesting attempt was made, during the rule of Emperor Julian the Apostate, to rebuild the Temple. By this time, the Christians had removed the stones left in the courtyards of the Temple complex in order to build their own churches but there were still heaping piles of ruins which had been left there nearly three hundred years. These were cleared and construction began in 363 C.E. with mixed interest from the Jews. Julian blamed the fires on the Christians, who were unduly resentful of the efforts to rebuild the Temple. Nevertheless, this ancient example of a thwarted rebuilding attempt (all work ceased with Justin’s death in 363) outside of HaShem’s will, will be repeated on a smaller scale nearly 1,300 years later when the Jews once again gain access to the Temple Mount.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT FALLS TO ISLAM

It was a Monday afternoon, some time in the winter of 638 C.E. Caliph Omar ibn al-Kitab, who by then held most of the Middle East under his sway, entered the gates of Jerusalem riding on a haggard beast of burden, his body draped in a simple robe of camel hair…Immediately upon his arrival…the caliph inquired about the location of ‘the Temple of the Jews that Solomon built.’…Omar walked to the Haram, the Arab name for the Temple Mount…The Islamic conquerors commenced a large-scale clearing operation on the Temple Mount, and at the end of a convoluted process they canonized the place as the location from which Mohammed ascended heavenward during his renowned night journey. With the sweep of a hand, the Temple Mount platform, with its new mosques and other sites, again became a focus of religious belief and practice, subordinate in Islam only to Mecca and Medina (Eliav, p. 237-238).

Caliph Omar, Mohammed’s second successor, was said to be gracious to the Christians but harsher to the Jews. Christians, although they were taxed, were allowed to keep their churches and could freely worship. Jews on the other hand were forbidden to enter Jerusalem and many laws were made against them. As for Jerusalem, her capture brought changes but not immediately. She remained largely intact according to the Byzantine-Christian design.

The Temple Mount was immediately considered sacred due to the traditions in Islam (Islam means "submission" contrary to popular belief that is means "peace.") of Mohammed ascending to heaven on his horse from the Temple Mount platform. On account of this, Muslims differed significantly from the anti-Semitic Christian view regarding the restoration of the Temple Mount. The Byzantine Christians felt that Har HaBayit should remain in ruin as “…visible proof of the destruction of Jewish nationalism and the elimination of its ancient ties with the holy place.” While Muslim conquerors wanted to refurbish the area in order to initiate Islamic worship in that location.

Omar constructed a mosque on the site of the current Al-Aqsa mosque but this was later reconstructed by Caliph Abdel Malek and his son El-Walid during the periods of 685-715 C.E. into the Al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock. Mazar outlines three reasons why these structures were erected: “(1) It memorialized the scene of one of the most controversial visions of the prophet Mohammed as recorded in verse 1 of Sura 17 of the Koran, whereby the messenger of [the god of Islam] was transported from Mecca to the ‘distant shrine’ (the most remote) mounted on a magic animal called el-Buraq, accompanied by the Angel Gabriel…(2) The Dome of the Rock competed in beauty and attraction with the magnificent Christian basilicas which filled the city, inspired awe and admiration not only of Christians, but of Moslems as well…(3) As a result of Arab building activities, Jerusalem became more than ever a magnet for pilgrims” (Mazar, pp. 262-263).

Between the years 637 to 1009 C.E., Jews were allowed to enter the Temple Mount and pray at what had been the Temple gates in exchange for cleaning up the trash present on the site. 150 years before the Crusades took place, they were permitted ascend the mount and pray. All of this changed in 1010 when caliph Hakim of the Egyptian Fatmids ruled with a harsh hand. He decreed the removal of all religious buildings (other than Islam), slaughtered Christians and Jews who would not convert to Islam, by 1010 he commanded Jews to wear six-pound wooden blocks and bells on their clothing (in order to be spotted easily) and by 1014 all Jews and Christians had to leave all the providences over which he ruled.

From 1016-1034 C.E., earthquakes continued to rattle the Temple Mount and damage important buildings like the Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. In 1070, the Seljuks rose to power and this, in conjunction with the inhumane treatment of Jews and Christians in Israel, prompted Pope Gregory VII to instigate the “holy” Crusades; promising that all who fought would obtain the full assurance of the forgiveness of their sins.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT UNDER CRUSADER DOMINATION
On the surface, the cause of the Crusades was freeing the Holy Land from her oppressors. However, other insidious rationales lurked below the surface such as economic and political motives making them hypocritical to their core. The Crusaders did not only slaughter the Muslims; Jews were herded into synagogues and burned alive. Babies were thrown from walls or thrown onto stones all the while the “Christian crusaders” called out, “our men went to worship at the Sepulcher of our Saviour Jesus and thus fulfill our pledge to Him…” The crimes committed in Jerusalem during this period were not only against people. HaShem’s holy hill was once again desecrated as a group of soldier-monks called, “Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon” (or Knights Templar for short) took control of the Temple Mount. The Dome of the Rock was converted into a Catholic church and Al-Aqsa mosque was made into a palace for the Frankish ruler, Godfrey and later for Baldwin I, the first Latin king of Jerusalem. A chapel and Crusader armory were erected on the Temple Mount and horses were kept in the area below the mount known as “Solomon’s Stables.” When Salah-ed-Din-Yusuf (Saladin) rose to power in 1171 C.E., he set his sights on Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187, he conquered Jerusalem leaving significant, historic buildings and Christian churches in tact. With Saladin in power, the Dome of the Rock returned to Muslim hands and was beautified with colorful tiles and inscriptions in the Kufic script. Al-Aqsa was also restored as a Muslim mosque. Saladin’s entrance signaled the end of the times of the Crusaders.

MAMELUKE AND TURKISH RULE
The next major leader from this period was Baibars, a Turkish slave who became sultan from 1260-1277. Throughout Jerusalem, the Mamelukes built Muslim schools, mosques, restored Al-Aqsa’s dome, and erased much of the evidence of the Crusader’s presence on the Temple Mount. They indeed went to great pains to Islamize the city, especially Har HaBayit. Mazar provides details of structures immediately surrounding the Temple Mount, “On the periphery of the Haram es-Sherif enclosure (the historical Temple Mount), the Mameluke sultans competed with one another to erect, between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, a dozen polychromic buildings of great beauty on the northern and western sides of the Temple Mount esplanade. These buildings housed madrasas, which were placed behind the charming polychromic cloisters or riwaq giving access to the main building. Added to the ring of madrasas were numerous adjoining mausoleums put up by sultans and noblemen” (Mazar, p. 281).

Suleiman I undertook serious renovations of the Temple Mount complex and Jerusalem’s walls. He replaced the tiles on the surface of the Dome of the Rock using Armenian craftsman who had a “secret” dye which gives off a blue color while adding in white, green, and yellow. Suleiman rebuilt the city walls (1539-1542) which still stand to this day.

FROM BRITISH RULE TO PRESENT
From 1700 C.E. to 1917, Jerusalem remained under Turkish rule, albeit its rule was not without challenge. Then, on December 9, 1917, General E. Allenby took control of Israel and freed the Temple Mount from a thirteen hundred year Muslim rule. Many changes were happening to Israel and the Jewish people during this time—far too many to recount here. However, the period of the British Mandate was good for the Temple Mount and archeologists working to understand the long history of the area. Full access was granted by the Waqf to inspectors of Har HaBayit and at this time it was possible to document, survey, photograph, and analyze data for the purpose of preserving what was left of such an important structure. This “open relationship” between the Waqf and archeologists would not be long lasting. As soon as the Arab Legion attacked the newly formed state of Israel in May of 1948, the Temple Mount fell under Jordanian rule. Nothing significant changed as far as the structure of the Temple Mount itself is concerned, but something was changing in the hearts of the people who belonged to this holy site. Strength was brewing that would soon bring about a war which would reverse the wrongs of the previous two millennia.

On Wednesday, June 7, 1967, following a bloody and heroic battle, Jerusalem and Har HaBayit were once again under Israeli control. Then the Israelis did the unthinkable. When the Six-Day War ended, Israel returned the Dome of the Rock (and

g the restoration of the Temple Mount. The Byzantine Christians felt that Har HaBayit should remain in ruin as “…visible proof of the destruction of Jewish nationalism and the elimination of its ancient ties with the holy place.” While Muslim conquerors wanted to refurbish the area in order to initiate Islamic worship in that location.

Omar constructed a mosque on the site of the current Al-Aqsa mosque but this was later reconstructed by Caliph Abdel Malek and his son El-Walid during the periods of 685-715 C.E. into the Al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock. Mazar outlines three reasons why these structures were erected: “(1) It memorialized the scene of one of the most controversial visions of the prophet Mohammed as recorded in verse 1 of Sura 17 of the Koran, whereby the messenger of [the god of Islam] was transported from Mecca to the ‘distant shrine’ (the most remote) mounted on a magic animal called el-Buraq, accompanied by the Angel Gabriel…(2) The Dome of the Rock competed in beauty and attraction with the magnificent Christian basilicas which filled the city, inspired awe and admiration not only of Christians, but of Moslems as well…(3) As a result of Arab building activities, Jerusalem became more than ever a magnet for pilgrims” (Mazar, pp. 262-263).

Between the years 637 to 1009 C.E., Jews were allowed to enter the Temple Mount and pray at what had been the Temple gates in exchange for cleaning up the trash present on the site. 150 years before the Crusades took place, they were permitted ascend the mount and pray. All of this changed in 1010 when caliph Hakim of the Egyptian Fatmids ruled with a harsh hand. He decreed the removal of all religious buildings (other than Islam), slaughtered Christians and Jews who would not convert to Islam, by 1010 he commanded Jews to wear six-pound wooden blocks and bells on their clothing (in order to be spotted easily) and by 1014 all Jews and Christians had to leave all the providences over which he ruled.

From 1016-1034 C.E., earthquakes continued to rattle the Temple Mount and damage important buildings like the Dome of the Rock and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. In 1070, the Seljuks rose to power and this, in conjunction with the inhumane treatment of Jews and Christians in Israel, prompted Pope Gregory VII to instigate the “holy” Crusades; promising that all who fought would obtain the full assurance of the forgiveness of their sins.

THE TEMPLE MOUNT UNDER CRUSADER DOMINATION
On the surface, the cause of the Crusades was freeing the Holy Land from her oppressors. However, other insidious rationales lurked below the surface such as economic and political motives making them hypocritical to their core. The Crusaders did not only slaughter the Muslims; Jews were herded into synagogues and burned alive. Babies were thrown from walls or thrown onto stones all the while the “Christian crusaders” called out, “our men went to worship at the Sepulcher of our Saviour Jesus and thus fulfill our pledge to Him…” The crimes committed in Jerusalem during this period were not only against people. HaShem’s holy hill was once again desecrated as a group of soldier-monks called, “Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon” (or Knights Templar for short) took control of the Temple Mount. The Dome of the Rock was converted into a Catholic church and Al-Aqsa mosque was made into a palace for the Frankish ruler, Godfrey and later for Baldwin I, the first Latin king of Jerusalem. A chapel and Crusader armory were erected on the Temple Mount and horses were kept in the area below the mount known as “Solomon’s Stables.” When Salah-ed-Din-Yusuf (Saladin) rose to power in 1171 C.E., he set his sights on Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187, he conquered Jerusalem leaving significant, historic buildings and Christian churches in tact. With Saladin in power, the Dome of the Rock returned to Muslim hands and was beautified with colorful tiles and inscriptions in the Kufic script. Al-Aqsa was also restored as a Muslim mosque. Saladin’s entrance signaled the end of the times of the Crusaders.

MAMELUKE AND TURKISH RULE
The next major leader from this period was Baibars, a Turkish slave who became sultan from 1260-1277. Throughout Jerusalem, the Mamelukes built Muslim schools, mosques, restored Al-Aqsa’s dome, and erased much of the evidence of the Crusader’s presence on the Temple Mount. They indeed went to great pains to Islamize the city, especially Har HaBayit. Mazar provides details of structures immediately surrounding the Temple Mount, “On the periphery of the Haram es-Sherif enclosure (the historical Temple Mount), the Mameluke sultans competed with one another to erect, between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, a dozen polychromic buildings of great beauty on the northern and western sides of the Temple Mount esplanade. These buildings housed madrasas, which were placed behind the charming polychromic cloisters or riwaq giving access to the main building. Added to the ring of madrasas were numerous adjoining mausoleums put up by sultans and noblemen” (Mazar, p. 281).

Suleiman I undertook serious renovations of the Temple Mount complex and Jerusalem’s walls. He replaced the tiles on the surface of the Dome of the Rock using Armenian craftsman who had a “secret” dye which gives off a blue color while adding in white, green, and yellow. Suleiman rebuilt the city walls (1539-1542) which still stand to this day.

FROM BRITISH RULE TO PRESENT
From 1700 C.E. to 1917, Jerusalem remained under Turkish rule, albeit its rule was not without challenge. Then, on December 9, 1917, General E. Allenby took control of Israel and freed the Temple Mount from a thirteen hundred year Muslim rule. Many changes were happening to Israel and the Jewish people during this time—far too many to recount here. However, the period of the British Mandate was good for the Temple Mount and archeologists working to understand the long history of the area. Full access was granted by the Waqf to inspectors of Har HaBayit and at this time it was possible to document, survey, photograph, and analyze data for the purpose of preserving what was left of such an important structure. This “open relationship” between the Waqf and archeologists would not be long lasting. As soon as the Arab Legion attacked the newly formed state of Israel in May of 1948, the Temple Mount fell under Jordanian rule. Nothing significant changed as far as the structure of the Temple Mount itself is concerned, but something was changing in the hearts of the people who belonged to this holy site. Strength was brewing that would soon bring about a war which would reverse the wrongs of the previous two millennia.

On Wednesday, June 7, 1967, following a bloody and heroic battle, Jerusalem and Har HaBayit were once again under Israeli control. Then the Israelis did the unthinkable. When the Six-Day War ended, Israel returned the Dome of the Rock (and

salem. A chapel and Crusader armory were erected on the Temple Mount and horses were kept in the area below the mount known as “Solomon’s Stables.” When Salah-ed-Din-Yusuf (Saladin) rose to power in 1171 C.E., he set his sights on Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187, he conquered Jerusalem leaving significant, historic buildings and Christian churches in tact. With Saladin in power, the Dome of the Rock returned to Muslim hands and was beautified with colorful tiles and inscriptions in the Kufic script. Al-Aqsa was also restored as a Muslim mosque. Saladin’s entrance signaled the end of the times of the Crusaders.

MAMELUKE AND TURKISH RULE
The next major leader from this period was Baibars, a Turkish slave who became sultan from 1260-1277. Throughout Jerusalem, the Mamelukes built Muslim schools, mosques, restored Al-Aqsa’s dome, and erased much of the evidence of the Crusader’s presence on the Temple Mount. They indeed went to great pains to Islamize the city, especially Har HaBayit. Mazar provides details of structures immediately surrounding the Temple Mount, “On the periphery of the Haram es-Sherif enclosure (the historical Temple Mount), the Mameluke sultans competed with one another to erect, between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, a dozen polychromic buildings of great beauty on the northern and western sides of the Temple Mount esplanade. These buildings housed madrasas, which were placed behind the charming polychromic cloisters or riwaq giving access to the main building. Added to the ring of madrasas were numerous adjoining mausoleums put up by sultans and noblemen” (Mazar, p. 281).

Suleiman I undertook serious renovations of the Temple Mount complex and Jerusalem’s walls. He replaced the tiles on the surface of the Dome of the Rock using Armenian craftsman who had a “secret” dye which gives off a blue color while adding in white, green, and yellow. Suleiman rebuilt the city walls (1539-1542) which still stand to this day.

FROM BRITISH RULE TO PRESENT
From 1700 C.E. to 1917, Jerusalem remained under Turkish rule, albeit its rule was not without challenge. Then, on December 9, 1917, General E. Allenby took control of Israel and freed the Temple Mount from a thirteen hundred year Muslim rule. Many changes were happening to Israel and the Jewish people during this time—far too many to recount here. However, the period of the British Mandate was good for the Temple Mount and archeologists working to understand the long history of the area. Full access was granted by the Waqf to inspectors of Har HaBayit and at this time it was possible to document, survey, photograph, and analyze data for the purpose of preserving what was left of such an important structure. This “open relationship” between the Waqf and archeologists would not be long lasting. As soon as the Arab Legion attacked the newly formed state of Israel in May of 1948, the Temple Mount fell under Jordanian rule. Nothing significant changed as far as the structure of the Temple Mount itself is concerned, but something was changing in the hearts of the people who belonged to this holy site. Strength was brewing that would soon bring about a war which would reverse the wrongs of the previous two millennia.

On Wednesday, June 7, 1967, following a bloody and heroic battle, Jerusalem and Har HaBayit were once again under Israeli control. Then the Israelis did the unthinkable. When the Six-Day War ended, Israel returned the Dome of the Rock (and the Temple Mount) into Arab hands with Jordan as the overseer. This act causes serious concern over when and if Israel will be able to organize a movement to rebuild a Third Temple.

CONCLUSION
It seems that no matter what the cost, diverse civilizations for thousands of years have been, at most, intent on destroying HaShem’s chosen people; and at least, to keep them away from the holiest place on earth given to them by God. This survey has reviewed those attempts beginning with the Persians and ending with the current Arab occupation of the Temple Mount. Both Scripture and the actions of the Jewish people through time attest that God intends His chosen people to have more than just a place in this world. Jews are the key to the world to come as well. In Isaiah 42:6-8, HaShem proclaimed, “I am Adonai, I have called you in righteousness, I will also hold you by the hand and watch over you, and I will appoint you as a covenant to the people, as a light to the nations, to open blind eyes, to bring out prisoners from the dungeon and those who dwell in darkness from the prison. I am HaShem, that is My name; I will not give My glory to another, nor My praise to graven images.” He Who is faithful to His word will continue to restore His people Israel, and with that restoration, He will cause man and history to be obedient to His will and one day soon, a Third Temple will stand on Har HaBayit. May it be soon—even in our day.